Forthcoming Blogs

There is nothing quite like the excitement of discovering new things about a topic. Over the past few days I have been discovering so much that i want to preview forthcoming blogs in this relatively short entry.

The Education of Alexander
It is well known that Aristotle was Alexander's tutor for a number of years in Macedon. The exact nature of his schooling is not known but we can imagine it to include not only the teaching of Plato but also of Socrates.

My interest has, however, been kindled by Xenophon's work. In particular, my initial interest was in Anabasis, the story of the retreat from Persia through to Asia Minor and back to mainland Greece of the Greek mercenaries in 401BC. Xenophon was one of the leaders elected to lead the mercenaries. There's a lot more to this story but the important question for me was whether Alexander the Great used the memoirs written by Xenophon during his own "Persian Expedition". Wikipedia suggests that is exactly the case!

More recently, I discovered that Xenophon's lesser known works, at least today, was the Kyropedia or The Education of Cyrus. Initially I was led to dimiss it as merely a tale of fiction but just as quickly I discovered that this was an important early discourse on the art of governance. It precedes Machiavelli's "The Prince" by many centuries and provides an alternative view of governance based on trust, not fear.

One can only hypoythesize that Alexander was not only well schooled in the military arts, he was also well schooled in what we would call the classical literature of Ancient Greece which covered poltics, governance and economics as well as science and literature. One cannot imagine education by Aristotle being narrowly focussed.

Esther
Have you ever wondered who were the people who lived in various parts of the Persian Empire at the time of Darius III and Alexander the Great? Remember that Darius the Great had forged an empire which stretched from Egypt through to Afghanistan and India as well as northwards to include modern-day Turkey, Greece and even parts of Russia. Quite an accomplishment though much of it had been captured initially by Cyrus the Great.

When Babylon was conquered by Cyrus in 539BC, there was a very large population of Jews who lived there following the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem in 587 BC (by Nebuchadrezzar). They had been allowed by Cyrus the Great to return to Jerusalem as part of a general amnesty (and Cyrus had actually offered funds to rebuild the Temple at Jerusalem) but many had stayed. By all accounts Babylon was quite a multicultural community, with Elamites, Persians, Medes, Cilicians, Ionians and Egyptians living there in addition to the Jews.

Of the many Jews who stayed behind in Babylon, a number went to Susa (the winter palace of the Persian Kings) and therein enters the tale of Esther. Now if you have read the Book of Esther in the New Testament, you will know the remainder of the story. If not, then I'll summarise it in the forthcoming blog.

The importance of this is quite straightforward. Remember that many aspects of daily commerce were connected to the Jews and we know that some Jews were highly placed officials in the bureaucracy of the Persian Empire. At this stage I have no idea what role the Jews may, or may not, have played in the unfolding story of Alexander the Great but it would certainly be part of the background that I'd like to explore.

Have just discovered something of interest, namely that Alexander the Great may have played a part in the split between the Samaritans and the Jews at the time of his conquest of Tyne (after Sisygambis and the royal women had been captured) (Schafer, 2003 Chapter 1). I can only smile that I discovered this just one day before the 25th Tevet 5767 (15th January 2007) which is celebrated as the day of the meeting between Alexander the Great and the High Priest of the Holy temple in Jerusalem (refer chabad.org).

Prosopography
Don't you just love all these new words! Thank heavens I speak Greek and I have a good isea of what "prosopography" means ...... "prosopo" is a Greek word meaning face but sometimes meaning a person and of course "graphy" means the writing of something.

Some time ago, I realised that I would need to write "potted histories" of key characters that I intended to use in various parts of the book. Since I wanted a measure of historical accuracy, I needed to ensure that they appeared in the various classic texts about Alexander the Great. It was not a task I was looking forward to but certainly I recognised it as an important one.

Imagine my joy when I discovered that such a task had already been completed! Yes, there is actually a book called "Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great" (Heckel, 2006). Yes, it will cost a fortune to buy and no, the discount from Amazon.com is not that great. With over 800 biographies, all historically referenced, it is likely to be an invaluable tool.

For those that may be interested, there is also a prosopography of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (preceding Alexander the Great) which is in the process of being published as a scholarly work (Radner (ed), 1998) as a series of volumes.

Alexander's Retreat
Many people have commented on how irrational they believe it was for Alexander the Great to have marched back from India along the Iranian coast. Many of his troops perished and that is seen as evidence of the fact that he was "losing" his ability to lead the troops. (I'll provide references for this in the actual blog).

I've been puzzled by this. In fact, I'm more than puzzled because this is all too convenient an explanation of the facts. There's no doubt that it would have been a risky gamble to travel down the coast ........ but Alexander's military history is full of gambles, many that succeeded and possibly a few that didn't. This risky manoeuvre is not entirely out of character.

If that is correct, and Alexander was in fact being entirely rational, why may have that been the case? What was in fact the reason for choosing to do this? Some people will assign a malevolent motive to Alexander; that this forced march was conducted deliberately to demoralise and destroy the troops which had revolted against him in India. Interesting hypothesis but entirely out of character for Alexander (which I guess is the point of those who say he "lost his marbles").

There is some interesting evidence that Alexander was facing some difficulties from commanders back in the central Persian Empire provinces. Is it possible that he knew he would face difficulties going back, that his return would be delayed and that he would be giving warning to his foes that he was returning? Is it possible that this was a way of surprising everybody and getting back before defenses could be erected to his return?

That's the hypothesis I will be exploring in the blog about Alexander's Retreat i.e. that this was a calculated gamble to surprise everybody back in Persepolis and Baghdad.

There are three questions that need to be investigated here:
1. What were the alternative routes back to Susa/Baghdad and what were the practical logistical difficulties there?
2. What were the risks of going down the coastal pathway in comparison and what were the potential benefits? and
3. What was happening to governance of the Empire while Alexander was away? (There are some hints about corruption and bad governance in later events).
Hopefully I will be able to answer these questions in the blog.


In the immortal words of Bugs Bunny.......That's all Folks!



Bibliography

Dakins, Henry Graham (translator) "Xenophon - Cyropedia: The education of Cyrus" Gutenberg Project, 2000
http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2085

Heckel, Waldemar "Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great - Prosopography of Alexander's Empire" Blackwell Publishing Professional 2006.

Radner, Helen "The Prosopography Neo-Assyrian Empire Vol.1 Part 1 A" Eisenbrauns, 1998

Schafer, Peter "The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World" Routledge 2003

http://www.chabad.org/calendar/view/day.asp?tdate=1/15/2007

Warner, Rex (translator) "Xenophon - The Persian Expedition" Penguin Books 1949

Persepolis and the Importance of Now Rouz

Background Events
The burning of Persepolis in 330BC is one of the most significant events in the story of Alexander the Great. Having captured Babylon and Susa in Autumn of 331BC, Alexander the Great left Sisygambis and the remaining captive women of the royal family in Susa while he moved on to capture Persepolis. Before doing so, it is mentioned by Curtius Rufus (Book 5, 2(22)) that Alexander had spoken to Sisygambis and confirmed to her the same status and respect as his own mother, Olympias. Other sources mention that this was when Alexander provided the royal women with Greek tutors.

Moving in winter time to capture Persepolis meant first the territory of the Uxian people and then breaching the Susian gates. The Uxian territory was governed by the satrap Medates, who was married to the daughter of Sisygambis' sister, who decided to fight rather than capitulate to Alexander's forces. Medates was defeated, in a tactical mountain manoeuvre that seems to be a characteristic of Alexander's drive to overcome traditional military obstacles and use surprise as a weapon in battle (Curtius Rufus, Book 5 3(5)), and was saved only by appealing to Sisygambis who intervened by letter on his behalf. This is a measure of the respect and influence she had achieved.

(Note: This is a useful thing to note, because we can now establish that mail correspondence between Sisygambis and Alexander was possible. There is evidence elsewhere that mail in the Persian Empire travelled very quickly and safely across the royal roads, in as little as three days from Susa to the frontiers, which is faster than 21Century mail systems. One of the devices we will use in the proposed book are letters of correspondence between Siygambis and Alexander. It is known that Alexander corresponded with his birth mother, Olympias, in Macedonia (Carney, 2006 pp.53-54). In addition it is useful to note that about the time that Alexander was confirming the status of Sisygambis as an "adopted" mother, his own mother left Macedonia for her homeland of Molossia, probably for reasons related to her antipathy for Antipater (Carney, 2006 p.52).)

Alexander next moved to breach the Susian gates, then held by Ariobarzanes, satrap of Persia, with 25000 troops. The Susian gates were a narrow gorge with very steep sides which forced the advancing army into a narrow and indefensible position (Curtius Rufus, Book 5 3 (17)-(21)). For possibly the first time Alexander had been stopped in his relentless drive. The troops under Alexander's command are not clear but the suggestion is that they were less than under the Persian command. After retreating for a few days, Alexander found a Lycian captive who was able to act as a guide providing a narrow back access pathway across the mountain. Thus Alexander was able to attack Ariobarzanes both from both sides of the pass. With 5000 infantry and 40 cavalry, Ariobarzanes broke through the Macedonian line and retreated to Persepolis where, unexplicably, he was denied entry and died at the hands of the pursuing forces (Rufius Curtius, Book 5 4).

(Note: This passage has great significance for those familiar with the battle at Thermopylae in 480BC. Leonidas, the Spartan King, with a select group of 300 Spartans and a small supporting Greek army defended the pass of Thermopylae against the might of Xerxes' army. They held the pass for three days and were defeated only when a Greek showed the Persians a path that circumvented the Greek position.(Herodotus, 1996 Book VII) While this did not save Athens from being sacked and the Acropolis being burnt, it did provide the Greek navy with time to prepare for the battle of Salamis. The contrast with the battle at the Susian Pass is interesting.)

Persepolis then fell to the forces of Alexander the Great in January 330BC. The great misfortune of Persepolis was that there was no satrap to hand over the city (though Fox (2004, pp. 258) states Alexander was welcomed by the city governor) and it appears the citizens of Persepolis had fled the city, many expecting the worst from Iskander the Destroyer. Inexplicably, Darius III had also fled to Ecbatana (in north west Iran) to regroup and prepare for a final battle with 30,000 infantry (including 4,000 Greeks), 4,000 archers and 3,300 cavalry (Curtius Rufus, Book 5 8). Persepolis and with it the Royal Treasury and the Zoroastrian Temple were laid open to plunder and destruction.

Greek Revenge - The Destruction of Persepolis
The initial sack and plunder of Persepolis was just that, a looting of the Royal Treasury accompanied by the unfortunate killing of people and stories of families electing to suicide heroically rather than face the rape and pillage of the marauding Greeks. Alexander quickly arranged for the treasury of Persepolis to be shipped out, initially to Macedonia but ultimately in Hamadan (Fox, 2004 pp.268), and then he quickly moved with a light rapid force in the heart of winter to subdue the rest of the province of Persia.

The burning of Persepolis occured a few months later, in May 330BC. The main army forces had been stationed in Persepolis, for a well deserved rest while Alexander had moved to secure the province. Easily accomplished, Alexander then waited for the weather to turn before mounting the next expected challenge against Darius III. The story told is one of revenge by the Greeks for the burning of Athens and of the Acropolis in particular.

Both Plutarch (1973,7(38) pp.295 ) and Curtius Rufus (Book 5 7(1)-(8) pp: 107) have a similar tale of revenge driven by an excess of wine and the urging of an Athenian courtesan. During one of the banquets, the courtesan Thais (who was the companion and later the wife of the general Ptolemy) urged Alexander to burn the Palace in revenge for the burning of the Acropolis by Xerxes (son of Darius I). Apparently, Alexander took the lead (perhaps as a matter of honour for how could one allow a courtesan to throw the first torch?) and the great palace in Persepolis was effectively destroyed by fire.

It is said by Plutrach that Alexander repented the deed quickly and tried to save the burning buildings but it was too late. The temple was built with a cedar roof and it was almost impossible to stop the roof burning. Archeological excavations apparently discovered 30 feet of ashes covering the ruined temples (Kriwaczek, 2003).

That basically is the Greek side of the story! There is, however, a Persian side to the story, some of it anecdotal and some enshrined in the classical literature of Persia.

Disaster at Persepolis - The Persian Story
The history of Iskander the Destroyer is told in the classic history of Persia written by Ferdowsi (and completed just before his death in 1020AD). The Shahnameh is revered as the classic poetic history of Persia (http://www.answers.com/topic/shahnameh) and there is an acclaimed recent translation by Dick Davis (Ferdowsi, 2006)which however is in prose rather than poetry. I will abstain from any further comments until I have read a number of translations.

There are a number of other references however which I have found fascinating, all of them in the book "In Search of Zarathustra" by Paul Kriwaczek (2002):

• The suggestion is made that Xerxes destroyed the Parthenon in 480BC because it contained figures of idolatry (2002, pp: 192) and, like his father Darius I, Xerxes was a strong believer in Ahura Mazda as a single god. Unlike Cyrus II, the founder and grandfather of Xerxes who tolerated many different faiths as long as the showed appropriate deference and tribute, Xerxes appeared to be part of a battle that included a fight against the Mage supporting other pretenders to the throne.
• Somewhere in the book, to be confirmed, there is also a suggestion that Darius I had become incensed at the Greeks because they had not chosen to present their tributes to Ahura Mazda and himself at Persepolis during the annual Now Rouz festival. He had become so angry with the Greek lack of tribute that he assembled the invasion forces to ensure due respect and tribute. This is where Now Rouz first makes an important appearance.
• One of the tour guides at Persepolis suggested that Alexander the Great had become incensed because appropriate tribute had not flowed to him during the traditional Now Rouz period of tribute (Krawiczek, 2002 pp: 146). We must recall that Darius III was still alive at Now Rouz and perhaps the loyalties were too difficult to arrange. Who was the rightful ruler of Persia? Why should tribute be made to a person who had no idea of the Now Rouz rituals for the Persian Empire?
• Zoroastrian tradition has it that many sacred texts were destroyed during the fire at the Temple but that the son of Darius III ordered that two copies of the sacred text Avesta and commentary Zand be prepared from the remaining fragments and oral traditions (Krawiczek, 2002 pp: 87, 203 and 215).

In this way, the Zoroastrian tradition of Now Rouz takes on an importance that is intriguing as well as presenting a great opportunity for storytelling. We must now turn to a description of Now Rouz, both contemporary and ancient.

The Celebration and Traditions of Now Rouz
Now Rouz (or Norooz) is the traditional celebration of the New Year heralded by the Spring equinox. (In the southern hemisphere, the timing and seasons make it the Autumn equinox. Just for the record, Now Rouz in 2007 will occur in Melbourne, Australia at exactly 10:07am on March 21st, courtesy of the Melbourne Planetarium).

In Iran, Now Rouz is a celebration of joy and family gathering. Though it is tempting to see it as a single day celebration, it is in reality a 13 to 20 day event of preparing for the new year, divining the prospects for the future and cleaning away old problems. In contemporary society, these events include:
• Khaneh Tikani _ literally shaking the house clean or what we would call a spring cleaning. This is a time for shaking off the winter blues, for welcoming the summer and preparing for the new year's festivities.
• Chahar Shanbeh Souri _ on the eve of the last wednesday of the passing year, seven brush fires are lit and people jump over the flames often saying "Sorkhi-e to az man, Zardi-e man az to" loosely translated as "Your fiery-red to me and my sickly yellow to you". It is traditional to serve a bean and noodle soup (Ash-e Chahar Shanbeh Souri) on this day.
• Shab-e Jome _ A big feast of chicken and rice is served the next day, Thursday after Chahar Shanbeh Souri, and this ritual assures one of a similar meal during the next year. (Clearly from a time when chicken was more of a treat). This day is also known as Rouz-e Barat or "Day of the Dead" when alms and gifts are distributed at the cemetery.
• Sa'at-e Tahvil _ the time of New Year itself, not midnight, is celebrated as a moment of forgiveness, a time for building positive relationships and exchanging Now Rouz greetings "Sal-e No Mobarak". If you are lucky Haji Firouz wearing a red suit will regale you with funny tales while Amoo Norouz will distribute presents. A dish traditionally served on this day is Kuku-ye Sabzi (Batmanglij, 2006 pp:120)
• Deed o-Bazdeed _ for the next 12 days, it's time to visit all the relatives starting with the eldest grandparents and moving progessively across the extended family from closest kin to more distant kin.
• Sizdah Bedar _ on the 13th day of the New Year it is traditional and considered lucky to celebrate on a picnic outside the home. It is, just like Chahar Shanbeh Souri, considered the right time to wish for what you want and need from life.
In addition to the events there are a number of important ceremonies that are observed:
• Sofreh Haft Sin _ The seven items strating with the letter "s" each represent a different wish for the New Year: sib (apples - health and beauty), sekkeh (coins 0 wealth and prosperity), seer (garlic - health and digestion), serkeh (vinegar - age and patience), sabzi (greens - growth and renewal), samanu (wheat pudding - sweetness and fertility), somak (a spice - sunrise and conquering evil) and senjed (lotus fruit - love and passion). The Sofreh Haft Sin is prpepared two days before Now Rouz and is put away after Sizdah Bedar.
• Growing Sabzi _ The tradition is for wheat grains to be germinated from about two weeks before Now Rouz, usually by the women. This had a practical significance in that it suggested how well the crops would fare in the coming season. (Clearly of significance in agricultural communities).
• Tokhmeh Morgh _ Hard-boiled aggs are prepared the day before and coloured either red, yellow or green (favoured colours of Zoroastrians and of course almost the colours of the Iranian flag). Tradition varies as to when they should be eaten but some are on the morning of Now Rouz by the head of the household.
The traditions for Now Rouz do vary in parts of Iran, especially for Sofreh Haft Sin.

One of my favourite variations appears unexpectedly in an anecdote by Paul Kriwaczek (2003, pp.13) as told to him by a schoolteacher in Zazd. Before Islam, Now Rouz was celebrated with a Sofreh Haft Shin. Notice the difference between Haft Shin and Haft Sin. The seven items were sharab (wine - celebration), shir (milk - nourishment), sharbat (sherbet - enjoyment), shamshir (sword - security), shemshad (box - wealth), sham (candle - illumination) and shahdaneh (hemp seed - enlightenment). What a wonderful collection of items, each of which can probably be traced to pre-Zoroastrian times.

The timing of Now Rouz and the symbols are very reminiscent of the traditions and timing of Greek Orthodox Easter. [This has a special meaning for me as my first name (Lambros) is derived from the Greek word for Easter (Lambri) though the term used for Easter is Pascha (hence the Italian first name of Pasquale).] Easter is a time of "anagenisis" or resurrection in the Greek Orthodox Tradition. In fact, many argue that Easter is a more important event in the Orthodox tradition than Christmas Day.

The traditions of Pascha need to be observed to be understood. Just before midnight, the church is planged into darkness and a single solitary candle flame is brought forth from the altar. This flame then spreads from person to person, a ripple of flame and light extinguishing the darkness. People the say to each other "Christos Anesti" meaning Christ has Arisen and the response is "Alithos Anesti" meaning Truly he has been Resurrected.

The tradition of Easter eggs is also quite important. Hard boiled eggs are usually dyed red. Now this is the fun part! Surkh is a Persian word meaning red coloured (see meaning of Soorki in wikipedia reference - English words of Persian origin). Surkh is sometimes used as one of the Sofreh Haft Sin (Kriwaczek, 2006 pp: 198). The tradition is for two people to try to crack each other's egg, the one with an intact egg having the greater fortune! Dare I say that our traditional Easter Sunday meal was ..... chicken with rice.

When exactly is the Orthodox Easter Sunday (i.e. the date of Resurrection)? Well, the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America states "According to the ruling of the First Ecumenical Synod in 325, Easter Sunday should fall on the Sunday following the first full moon after the vernal equinox". (See http://www.goarch.org reference) Yep, that means it is connected to Now Rouz but in a way that one adjusts for the inaccuracies of the Julian calendar. Why the Sunday following the full moon? Because the reverend fathers did not want it to fall on the same day as the Jewish Passover. What a wonderful statement that makes!

Summary and Concluding Thoughts
We have come a long way from the initiual discussion about the destruction of Persepolis and the connection to the celebration of Now Rouz by the Persian Kings, especially Darius I and Xerxes. This all forms a wonderful backdrop for us, as the implications are enormous.

Just feeding the army of Alexander over the five months from January through May, without the usual gifts and collection of provisions from across the Persian satrapies, would have denuded the countryside of food. Simple logistics suggests this would have placed great hardship on the population of the Persian satrapy. Not only were they without the glory of the traditional Now Rouz celebration, the priests had been scattered if not killed and their food supplies for New Year were given to barbarians to feast on in the ghostly city of Persepolis. Ahura Mazda would not have been pleased!

One wonders if Alexander was truly missing the counsel of Sisygambis at such a critical time in his journey from Greek Conqueror to Regent of the Greaco-Persian Empire? One also wonders if the saying is not true "Be careful of what you wish for; It may come true!"




Bibliography

Batmanglij, Najmieh (co-authors Davis, Dick and Owens, Burke) "From Persia to Napa - Wine at the Persian Table" Mage Books 2006

Ferdowsi, Abolqasem "Shahnameh - The Persian Book of Kings" Translated by Dick Davis, Viking Adult 2006

Fox, Robin Lane "Alexander the Great" Penguin Books - reissued with updates 2004

Herodotus "The Histories" Penguin Classics reprint edition 1996

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Calendar

http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article7070.asp

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Persian_origin

Kriwaczek, Paul "In Search of Zarathustra - The First Prophet and the Ideas that Changed the World" Phoenix - Orion Books 2003

Quintus Curtius Rufus "The History of Alexander" Penguin Classics Reprint 2004

Novel Questions

Pathways explored
Over the past few weeks my quest to explore the relationship between Sisygambis and Iskander has progressed down two pathways, each interesting and unexpected in different ways.

A small digression first. It must be remembered that most of our historical records about Alexander the Great have been written from the Greek point of view and rarely have survived from the Persian point of view. It is a historical truism that history is written and re-written by the victorious sides in any form of conflict, whether it be military, economic, political or technological conflict. The Greek accounts that have survived all must be seen as "tainted" in this respect. Their portrayal of royal women in Persia can be seen to have been coloured by the ideological position of Greeks vesus Persians on the role of women (in the upper classes of society)in addition to failures of collective memory when different historical records of the same event are compared.

The first pathway was to understand the economic role of women in the Persian royal households. The traditional view one has is a particularly nefarious one; a brood of royal mares fighting within the confines of a royal harem to gain the favour of the king and become the mother of the annointed successor. There is, however, a movement within historical studies to shed the confines of classical thought and reveal a more complex picture of women in society. I am indeed indebted to Elizabeth Carney (1996) for revealing a new and intriguing picture of the relationship between "Alexander and Persian Women". I must say that my respect for her insight has increased as I have read and thought about the original material (in English translations of course).

The theme of Carney's work is that Alexander had a complex and difficult task in managing his role with the Persian royal and satrapal women. The royal women were captives in one sense, the relationship with Stateira (wife of Darius III) is at best unclear,and they were ultimately also his links to establishing his legitimacy with royal Persian lineage through marriage. The satrapal women (Barsine and Roxanne) were the only two women known to have borne children from Alexander yet their roles as non-royals was unclear. It must have been a very subtle play to keep both the greeks and the Persians happy with his treatment of these women.

(By the way, if you are interested in reading more about royal women in the Macedonian royal court, I must commend Elizabeth Carney's works on women and monarchy in Macedonia (2000) as well as her most fascinating biography of Olympias (2006) not only as mother of Alexander the Great but also as a political woman with pan-hellenic influence even after his death.)

The importance of the Kings' wife and mother in the daily life of the Persian royal court is emphasised in the studies of Maria Brosius (1996, 2006). That royal women were responsible for the welfare and safety of the royal family should come as no surprise to readers. However, this is the most telling line for me:
"As owners of large estates, orchards and centres of manufacture for which they employed their own workforces, royal women enjoyed considerable economic independence" (Brosius, 2006 pp.43) To put this in context; the royal women were typically members of the ruling families that supported the Persian King, were able to dine with the king and thereby were able to discuss and influence decisions, and through their ability to travel and economic independence were able to provide invaluable information to the King.

The picture of royal women as chattels is questionable given the other roles and responsibilities that modern scholarship has uncovered through historical sources. More likely, these women could have been partners and allies in the best sense of these meanings but also had the potential to become enemies and subversive elements at times. One can imagine the thoughts of Greek merceneries who not only saw the great wealth of the Persian nation but also that some significant portions were held by women!

This raises some very interesting questions for the proposed novel. What was the economic position of Sisygambis? Did she own estates in various parts of the Persian empire? Where specifically were they? (One must suppose that some landholdings existed in the traditional areas of her family but there may have been others in other parts of the empire). To what extent were these passed from mother to daughter and what was the mechanism for doing so? Details they may be but important ones for understanding and recreating their daily life and concerns.

If they did own these landholdings and manufacturing centres, how were they managed when the king's wife and mother accompanied him into battle (as appears to have been the custom)? Was this a custom to protect the women or to ensure their loyalty during the times of battle. Were their fortunes tied so closely to that of the king? Were they expected to be killed if the king lost the battle or to be used as hostages? None of these trivial matters are evident in my readings to date.

The second pathway started with a question posed in the earlier blog; what was the role of the royal women in the religious affairs of the state? In particular, given the reputed role of Olympias as a religious celebrant, is it not possible that Sisygambis played a similar role in the Persian Empire?

Thankfully in the course of the past three weeks I have discovered some wonderful insights into this question. The more concise source is Maria Brasius (2006). When Darius I captured the throne (in 522BC) he proclaimed that his rule was achieved with the support of Ahuramazda, "The Wise One" (Brasius, 2006 p.16). Darius I was the representative of Ahuramazda on earth. The Zoroastrian religion (i.e. the religion based upon the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster) is one characterised by the dualism between good and evil, between Ahuramazda (the God of goodness) and Ahriman (the God of evil). Zoroastranism was the principal religion of the ruling class (both the royal family and the satraps) certainly from the time of Darius I (Brazius, 2006 pp: 68-69).

It is noteworthy that when Darius I built Persepolis to signify his victory it became the centre of the Zoroastrian religion with its own temple. When Alexander the Great burned Persepolis he actually destroyed the Great Temple of Ahuramazda. It is believed that most of the sacred Zoroastrian sacred texts were burnt in that fire thereby earning Alexander the title of Iskander the Destroyer. What a powerful image this must have created in the minds of those who believed in the forces of good and evil; those who destroyed the sacred temple of Ahuramazda must logically be the followers of Ahriman!(It should also be noted that it would be politically and religiously hazardous to suggest in modern day Iran that destruction of the sacred texts may have been more easily accomplished at the time of the conversion of the Persian nation to Islam in the mid 600's AD. There is evidence of book burnings at the time as some believe no book otherthan the Quran is needed.)

[As an aside, I also noted what may be a linguistic coincidence but something that I want to follow. Acting under the divine guidance of Ahuramazda, the King was supposed to act correctly in moral terms between the forces of good (OP arta) and evil (OP drauga). What has struck me is that in the Greek Orthodox religion, the host or bread symbolising the body of Christ and offered at communion is called artos]

The search for more information on Zoroastrianism has led me on a merry journey. By pure chance (is that ever possible really) I had purchased and lightly read Gore Vidal's (1981)epic novel "Creation" a few months ago, a novel that used the fictional character of Cyrus Spitama, grandson of the Prophet Zoroaster, to explore Zoroastranism at the time of Darius I. Just a few days ago, I also stumbled across a historical journey backwards from today to peel back layers of understanding of Zoroastrianism in the distant past (Kriwaczek, 2002). The book entitled "In Search of Zarathustra" is a wonderful explanation of how Zoroastrianism has developed and morphed over time with some extraordinary and surprising events taking place. More on this extraordinary book when I have finished reading it.

The closest we get to Zoroastrianism today is the living group of Parsees who live mainly in the Indian state of Gujarat. They are the descendants of the Zoroastrians who fled Persia when the Islamic Arab forces conquered the country between 636 and 651 AD. The fortunes of the Parsees rapidly improved when the British East India Company established operations in Bombay certainly by late 1686 AD (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsi). From my knowledge of Indian business groups, I know that the Tata family and other prominent industrialist families are Parsees. What I did not know is that Zubin Mehta (orchestral conductor) and Freddy Mercury (lead singer in rock band Queen) are also Parsee!

Back to the question of Sisygambis and her links to Zoroastrianism; what do we know? It appears that she must have been actively a follower as a member of the royal family but there is no indication so far on whether the royal family was personally involved in the rites or whether this was the job of some priestly class (which is more likely the case)? A fascinating journey that still has a way to go.

Exploring Alexander's motivations
During the course of this background research on the novel, a number of questions about Alexander the Great have begun to trouble me.

The problem is that most contemporary discussions of Alexander the Great have focussed on the man, his leadership style and military exploits! It is interesting to read of the key battles, to analyse the strategic choices made prior to combat and the tactical decision making during the battle. More than most people (as a person trained in business strategy) I revel in understanding the role of battle hardened veterans, innovation in military formations (the phalanx), feints and traps as tactical weapons in addition to focus, mass and force all in the context of exploiting the geographical features of the battlefield. I despair at the lack of understanding the political motives and economic imperatives driving the land based armies!

However, what is missing is the more complex notion of competing political alliances and institutional aspects of the struggle for leadership and acendancy. We have such a simple understanding of Alexander the Great's battles. Too often they are portrayed as the battle between the Greek and the Persian ways of life. In it's most simplistic form this is the battle between the Greek nation states (implied in this is the notion of democracy though neither Sparta nor Macedonia could have been called democracies, even in the Athenian sense) and the Persian empire (a heterogeneous collective of states ruled from the centre). [As an aside, I just thought how the Star Wars films were very much in the same vein].

However, it is instructive to think about the different explanations of the Cuban Missile Crisis (Allison, 1971) to present a clearer picture. Graham Allison's study of the Cuban Missile Crisis showed how equally valid and interesting explanations could be written from very different perspectives: one from the viewpoints of two superpowers (the US and USSR), one from the viewpoint of different government agencies within the US government (such as the State Department, Attorney General's, and the various branches of the Pentagon, even the CIA), and finally one looking at the individuals involved in the decision-making (President John F. Kennedy, Robert Kennedy, Dean Rusk and Robert McNamara).

What is missing from our contemporary understanding is the middle level of interpretation, the battles between the various factional groups of Persians and the battles within the Greek (not simply Macedonian) factions. It's fair to say that these would be coalitions of interests capable of moving through shifting alliances at different times of Alexander's leadership and rule. On both the Greek and the Persian side, one can suspect the motives and interests of different factional groups. The marriage of the Greek leadership to the Persian noblewomen can be seen as an attempt to forge a political alliance between Greek and Persian interests. What this meant for the economic interests can only be imagined! I cannot imagine a person like Alexander the Great choosing these marriage alliances without a notional understanding of the political and economic consequences.

Though this is a theme introduced in the earlier blog, I have been thinking a lot about what may have motivated Alexander to begin the transition from being the leader of a Greek army using revenge and a sense of destiny to drive deep into the heart of the Persian Empire. With the destruction of Persepolis, however, that mission was well and truly accomplished. The amount of treasure removed from Persepolis and sent back to Macedonia was reuted to be very large. Why did Alexander choose to continue to drive through the eastern frontiers of the Persian Empire?

One idea advanced by some is that Alexander sought to plant the seeds of Greek culture into the Persian landscape. He created cities along the way and some of these remain to this day. The Seleucid Dynasty founded by the successors to Alexander was relatively shortlived over a period of 100 years though the Greaco-Bactrian empire in modern day Afghanistan continued for another 100 years (Brosius, 2006 p.81). I suspect it is more likely these Greek cities (many of them called Alexandria) were more likely ways of enabling Alexander to settle groups of Greek soldiers who were happy not to return to their homeland and allowed him to establish a pseudo-military presence in the conquered satrapies.

Why did Alexander not return to Macedonia? Why was he prepared to live in Persia and what were his thoughts about establishing a legitimate succession plan? The coincidence that haunts me is the relationship between Barsine (the royal consort in some ways) becoming pregnant with child and what seems to be a sudden decision to marry Roxanne (the daughter of a Bactrian satrap). Both would not have been considered suitable wives in terms of being the Queen in the Persian manner of arranging marriages.

In addition, there is the decision to train the Persian youth in the Greek manner of fighting. These were established before Alexander's Bactrian campaign and little is known how this was done. Yet, when he needed them, after the apparent rebellion in the Indian campaign and following that journey through south-eastern Iran, he was able to release the Greek Macedonian soldiers and replace them with Persian troops. They may not have been battle-hardened troops and he still needed to win their personal loyalty but they were a viable substitute. They were never really put to the test though!

The interesting question is one of replacement of the retiring Macedonian troops. Many of his troops were relatively old men and had fought alongside Alexander for many years, despite his own youth. If Macedonia was unable, or possibly unwilling, to supply the troops he needed what was he supposed to do? Alexander had worked with his troops since he was a teenager. He had not returned to Macedonia since leaving on this campaign. Was that a flaw in his model of governance or were his hands full ensuring consolidation of military gains and reverting to a peacetime status? (If you think that's easy, just reflect on the US position in Iraq at present!)

Closing Greetings
Since the last blog, we have celebrated a number of special days. Of course I want to wish you all a Happy New Year (according to the Gregorian calendar I presume).

However, let's not forget that Iranians celebrate the winter solistice Shab-e Yalda, literally meaning re-birth of the sun. Unlike the Islamic Arabs, whose calendar is based upon the moon, the Persian calendar and celebrations was originally based upon the sun (as is the Western or European calendar ... I believe). Just one more little thing to add to the list of things to learn and remember. Whicg calendar was used at the time of Alexander?

For Christians, it is also useful to remember that the birth date of Jesus is more accurately in early January according to some sources. We celebrate Christmas Day just a few days after the winter solistice. Is this a mere coincidence? Is it a mere coincidence that the revered Magi who attended the birth of Jesus in Bethlehem may have actually been members of the class of Zoroastrian priests (Brasius, 2006 p.66)? Mithra was the god of light and part of the deity system of Zoroastrianism. Was the story of the Magi attending the birth of Jesus a homage from an older religion that symbolised the new prophet?

Cannot help thinking of the implications of Mithraism which was a significant force in the Roman Empire. One of the sacred rituals was the slaying of the bull and the fertlisation of the soil. Could this possibly be the origins of bull fights in Spain? Are there similar rituals in Ancient Persia? Where did the Hindu rituals of not killing bulls spring from? Too much for one day.

As dawn breaks over the sky and the sun conquers darkness where I live, I bid you adieu!


Bibliography:

Allison, Graham T. "Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis" Little, Brown & Co. 1971

Brosius, Maria "The Persians: An Introduction" Peoples of the Ancient World series, Routledge 2006

Brosius, Maria "Women in Ancient Persia" Oxford Classical Monographs, Clarendon Press 1996 (reprinted 2002)

Carney, Elizabeth "Olympias: Mother of Alexander the Great" Women of the Ancient World series, Routledge 2006

Carney, Elizabeth "Alexander and Persian Women" American Journal of Philology Vol 117 No 4 1996 pp:563-583

Carney, Elizabeth "Women and Monarchy in Macedonia" University of Oklahoma Press 2000

Kriwaczek, Paul "In Search of Zarathustra: The First Prophet and Ideas that changed the World" Phoenix - an Orion Books imprint, 2003

Vidal, Gore "Creation: A Novel" Random House 1981 (republished Vintage International in a restored edition 2002)